Many
people have enjoyed learning in Montessori schools.
Some
of the famous names include: Anne Frank, the diarist; Gabriel Garcia Marquez,
the novelist; Katherine Graham, the former owner-editor of The Washington Post;
Lea Salonga, the actress; George Clooney, the actor; Jeff Bezos, the founder of
Amazon; Sergey Brin and Larry Page, the co-founders of Google and Jimmy Wales,
the founder of Wikipedia.
Many
others have supported or taught at such schools. These include: Helen Keller,
Alexander Graham Bell, Thomas Edison, Buckminster Fuller, Jean Piaget, the
Dalai Lama, Erik Erikson, John Holt and Nigel Kennedy.
Many
people say that Montessori education enabled them to be self-starters, think
for themselves and continue to develop in their chosen fields. Explaining the
principles behind the Montessori schools, Maria once wrote:
There
is a part of a child's soul that has always been unknown but which must be
known. With a spirit of sacrifice and enthusiasm we must go in search,
like those who travel to foreign lands and tear up mountains in their search
for hidden gold.
1) Philosophy and Background.
Maria
was an educational pioneer whose belief in children – and child-centered
education – spread around the world. There was a time – during the early part
of the 20th Century – when it seemed her approach would be adopted throughout
education.
Her
ideas made a profound impact, but some fell victim to other philosophies and
mass schooling. During the past half century, however, there has been an
appreciation of the Montessori approach and what it can do for children.
Certainly
there have been critics, but the overwhelming reaction has been positive. (One
contributing factor to the criticism has been that there is no protection of
the name. Anybody can set-up a school and call it ‘Montessori’.)
You
can discover more about her heritage on the web site of the Association
Montessori Internationale. This can be found at:
Maria
was responsible for developing many concepts now associated with child-centered
education. So let’s start by considering her achievements and some aspects of
her approach.
*
She became one of the first women in Italy to qualify and practise as a doctor.
*
She then switched to education and spent years observing how children
developed. She formulated her ideas, put these into practice and achieved
outstanding results with children previously considered ‘idiots’.
*
She created pioneering schools. She developed unique learning materials that
enabled children to learn by using all their senses. She was the first to introduce
school furniture made for children, rather than for adults.
*
She believed children wanted to learn – seeing play as ‘the work of the child’.
She encouraged children to learn by pursuing their interests. She created the
‘3 hour cycle’ in which children could concentrate on their work for 3 hours.
*
She believed children had ‘absorbent minds’ that were open to learning specific
things at certain stages. She called these stages ‘planes of development’. She
developed strategies for enabling children to master specific skills during
these sensitive times.
*
She saw the educator’s role as encouraging the child to pursue their interests
and develop their abilities. She trained educators to provide an attractive
‘prepared environment’ and enable the child to capitalise on their development
at each stage.
*
She found that pursuing this approach produced excellent results. Children
frequently became more self-managing, responsible and committed to lifelong
learning.
Philippe
Tremblay, an expert on education, described the Montessori approach in the
following way.
“Montessori
education is a flow experience; it builds on the continuing self-construction
of the child – daily, weekly, yearly – for the duration of the programme.
"Montessori
schools are divided into multi-age classrooms: parent infant (ages 0 to 3);
preschool (ages 3 to 6); lower and upper elementary (ages 6 to 9 and 9 to 12):
middle school (ages 12 to 14).The prepared environments introduce an
uninterrupted series of learning passages, a continuum.
"The
‘prepared environment’ is Maria Montessori's concept that the environment can
be designed to facilitate maximum independent learning and exploration by the
child.” (Italics mine.)
You
can find Philippe’s original presentation of this – and other approaches to
education – at:
Starting out
Maria
was born in Chiaravalle, Ancona, in 1870. Her father, Alessandro, was a civil
servant, whilst her mother, Renilde Stoppani, was relatively well-educated and
loved reading.
The
family moved to Rome in 1875 and Maria showed a great hunger to learn. Rumour
suggests that her parents sometimes disagreed about her future, but Renilde was
ambitious for her daughter, who showed a great capacity for learning and
passing exams.
Maria
also emerged as a leader amongst her peers. Ready to break barriers, she enrolled
at the Regio Istituto Tecnico Leonardo da Vinci, intending to become an
engineer. Moving on, however, she decided to enter medical school and become a
doctor.
The
Association Montessori Internationale web site set up to celebrate the 100th
anniversary of the first Montessori School says:
“Upon
graduation Montessori’s parents encouraged her to take up a career in teaching,
one of the few occupations open to women at the time, but she was determined to
enter medical school and become a doctor.
"Her
father opposed this course – medical school was then an all male preserve – and
initially Maria was refused entry by the head of school. Montessori was
undeterred, apparently ending the unsuccessful interview with the professor
saying: ‘I know I shall become a doctor.’”
“Eventually
it seems that Pope Leo XIII interceded on her behalf and in 1890 Montessori
enrolled at the University of Rome to study physics, maths and natural
sciences, receiving her diploma two years later. This was her passport to the
Faculty of Medicine and she became one of the first women to enter medical
school in Italy.
"Montessori
stood out not just because of her gender, but because she was actually intent
on mastering the subject matter. She won a series of scholarships at medical
school which, together with the money she earned through private tuition,
enabled her to pay for most of her medical education.”
“Her
time at medical school was not easy. She faced prejudice from her male
colleagues and had to work alone on dissections since these were not allowed to
be done in mixed classes.
"But
she was a dedicated student and on July 10th 1896 she qualified as a doctor.
Being one of the first women in Italy to achieve this, she became known across
the country … She was immediately employed in the San Giovanni Hospital
attached to the University.”
Maria
also became a surgical assistant and did research work at a psychiatric clinic
attached to the University of Rome. There she met a doctor, Giusseppe
Montesano, with whom she would later have a romance.
Maria
gave birth to their son, Mario, in 1898, but the couple never married. Mario
was cared for by a family in the countryside near Rome and, though Maria
visited him regularly, it was many years before he knew their true
relationship. Mario later collaborated with Maria and continued his mother’s
work after her death.
You
can find Maria’s complete biography at:
Influences
Maria
began taking a strong interest in working with children in Rome’s asylums. During
this time she read everything possible on working with ‘mentally retarded
children’.
Two
key influences were Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard – famous for working with the ‘wild
boy of Aveyron’ – and one of his students, Edouard Seguin. Both believed in
showing respect to each individual – whatever their condition – and also
helping people to learn through the senses.
Friedrich
Froebel, the inventor of the kindergarten, was another key influence. He
encouraged children to learn through play and by using attractive learning
materials.
Developing
her own approach
Reading
through the material and working with the ‘retarded children’, Maria came to
her own revelation. She later wrote in The Montessori Method:
"I
felt that mental deficiency presented chiefly a pedagogical, rather than mainly
a medical, problem."
Putting
her ideas into practice, she began experimenting with learning materials that
stimulated the senses. The results were startling. The so-called
‘feeble-minded’ children achieved exam results equivalent to those considered
‘normal’.
Maria
was beginning to develop her own philosophy. This would be expressed later in
the following quotations:
“Our
aim is not only to make the child understand, and still less to force him to
memorize, but so to touch his imagination as to enthuse him to his innermost
core.”
“We
must not dwell on his limitations but focus on his possibilities.”
“The
teacher's task is not to talk, but to prepare and arrange a series of motives
for cultural activity in a special environment made for the child.”
“The
essential thing is for the task to arouse such an interest that it engages the
child's whole personality.”
“Follow
the child … These words reveal the child's inner needs: ‘Help me to do it
alone.’"
“The
child is much more spiritually elevated than is usually supposed. He
often suffers, not from too much work, but from work that is unworthy of him.”
“It
is necessary for the teacher to guide the child without letting him feel her
presence too much, so that she may always be ready to supply the desired help,
but may never be the obstacle between the child and his experience.”
“The
first essential for the child's development is concentration. The child who
concentrates is immensely happy.”
“The
first dawning of real discipline comes through work. Every action of the
teacher can become a call and an invitation to the children.”
“The
more the capacity to concentrate is developed, the more often the profound
tranquillity in work is achieved, then the clearer will be the manifestation of
discipline within the child.”
“Childhood
passes from conquest to conquest in a rhythm that constitutes its joy and
happiness.”
“The
word education must not be understood in the sense of teaching but of assisting
the psychological development of the child.”
(One
key point: the educator in the Montessori approach is known as the
‘Directress/Director’, rather than ‘teacher’.)
Casa dei
Bambini
Maria’s
work with the ‘idiots’ built her reputation. She was invited to several
countries to lecture on issues involving education and social reform. Then, in
1907, she established the first Children’s House – the Casa dei Bambini. Maria
was responding to a call for help.
The
Montessori Centenary web site explains that Rome was expanding at the time, but
some construction firms were going bankrupt. This left unfinished buildings
that were quickly occupied by squatters.
A
group of wealthy bankers decided to rescue one development in the San Lorenzo
district, however, and re-housed poor working families. This solved several
problems, but created another challenge.
Without
parental supervision during the day, children roamed the building sites, often
causing damage. The developers approached Maria, inviting her to do something
with the children. The Centenary site says:
“Montessori
grasped the opportunity of working with normal children and, bringing some of
the educational materials she had developed … A small opening ceremony was
organised but few had any expectations for the project. Montessori felt
differently:
‘I
had a strange feeling which made me announce emphatically that here was the
opening of an undertaking of which the whole world would one day speak.’
“She
put many different activities and other materials into the children’s
environment but kept only those that engaged them. What Montessori came to
realise was that children who were placed in an environment where activities
were designed to support their natural development had the power to educate
themselves.”
Here
is a letter written by Maria when opening the school. It says:
“I
started my work like a peasant who had put aside good seeds of wheat, and to
whom a fertile piece of land had been offered so he could sow it according to
his wish. But it was not to be. As soon as I moved the sods of that earth, I
found gold, rather than wheat. The sods were hiding a precious treasure.”
Spreading
the philosophy
Montessori’s
work at the Children’s House proved successful and, in 1908, a third school was
opened in Milan, run by Anna Maria Maccheroni.
One
year later Maria ran her first training course in the ‘method’ in Citta di
Castella. She also wrote her first book – known in English as The Montessori
Method – which was eventually translated into 20 languages.
By
1911 her approach had been implemented in countries such as Switzerland,
France, England, Argentina and the USA. One year later The Montessori Method
was published in America – the first edition of 5,000 selling out in a few
days.
Maria
ran the First International Training course in 1913. Held in Rome, it was
attended by students from Europe, Asia, Australia, South Africa and the USA. In
December of that year she made her first trip to America and the Montessori
Educational Association was set up in that country. Founded by Alexander Graham
Bell and his wife Mabel, it was backed by people such as Thomas Edison and
Helen Keller.
Maria
visited the US again in 1915, this time accompanied by her son, Mario. She
addressed several conventions and ran training courses. She also presented a
‘glass house’ school room to the Panama-Pacific International Exhibition in San
Francisco. This enabled spectators to observe children learning using her
materials and methods.
Moving from
country to country
Over
the next three decades Maria moved from country to country. Sometimes this was
the result of invitations – such as basing herself in Barcelona, India and the
Netherlands. Sometimes it was because of other challenges – such as the
Montessori approach being banned in her native country by Mussolini.
The
Association Montessori Internationale was founded in 1929 and based in Berlin.
The Nazi’s closed all Montessori schools in Germany, however, and the AMI moved
to the Netherlands, which Maria also made her base.
At
the end of 1939 she and Mario visited India to run a three month training
course. Italy entered the Second World War while they were on the sub-continent
and Mario was interned, but she was allowed to travel around the country. Her
son was released to honour her 70th birthday, but neither were allowed to leave
India until the end of the war.
Maria
spent the final years of her life writing books and travelling the world
educating teachers. She was also nominated three times for the Nobel Prize, in
three consecutive years, 1949, 1950 and 1951.
Her
last public engagement was in London in 1951 when she attended the 9th
International Montessori Congress. She died at Noordwijk aan Zee in Holland,
aged 81. Beside her was Mario who, together with thousands around the world,
continued to practise her philosophy of education.
2) Principles.
What
actually happens in a Montessori environment? Imagine you are visiting a class
for the youngest children. You will probably see over 30 children – ranging
from two and a half to six years old.
*
The room has a prepared environment in which children can follow their natural
tendency to work.
It
will embody the characteristics of beauty, simplicity, order, accessibility and
reality. Children will have many enticing materials that are designed to help
them explore their world and develop their skills.
*
The children will be ‘working’.
Some
will be totally concentrated on their activity; some will be co-operating with
others; some will be tidying up after their last activity and moving onto the
next. Some may be preparing food. Some may be engaged in other activities.
*
The children will be given freedom to work and move around within suitable
guidelines that enable them to act as part of a social group.
They
can pursue their own interests – though they must also respect others.
*
The educator will be watching the children.
They
will see when they become enraptured, follow their flow and, when appropriate,
encourage and guide them to further exploration on this theme.
*
The children will continue to develop their skills, repeating an activity until
it satisfies an ‘inner goal’.
They
will then move onto the next activity they want to explore.
Montessori
educators follow certain principles to enable young people – children and
adolescents – to fulfil their potential. Let’s explore just three of these
guidelines.
First,
young people want to learn and they also go through certain stages of
development.
Second,
they can be enabled to learn by being provided with the right environment and
encouragement at each stage of their development.
Third,
they can be helped to enjoy a sense of fulfilment. Let’s explore each of these
principles.
* Every young person wants to learn and goes through certain
stages of development – these are called ‘planes of development’.
Maria
believed it was important to ‘follow the child’. This meant following their
interests and understanding their journey through life.
She
believed there were four planes of development that everyone must pass through
on their way to adulthood. These were: birth – 6; 6 – 12; 12 – 18; 18 – 24.
Within
each stage there were also ‘sensitive times’ when the youngster was drawn to
learning specific skills. The educator’s role was to provide the right
environment and encouragement to help them to develop during each plane. So
let’s explore the stages laid out in Montessori education.
(The
various stages of human development is common knowledge these days. Maria’s
insights came at the beginning of the 20th Century, however, before Freud and
other thinkers. So in this sense her views were pioneering.)
The First
Plane of Development: Birth to the Age of 6
The
child goes through several sensitive periods during this time. These include
learning via Movement; Order; Development of the senses; Love of the
environment; Details and Language.
The
child learns with the ‘absorbent mind’ during this time. The ages 0 – 3 are
unconscious learning; the ages 3 – 6 are more conscious learning. The question
a child asks at this stage is: “What is it?”
Montessori
believed that more learning takes place at this stage compared to any other
time of life. Children begin to develop motor skills, imitate adults, learn
language and relate to the world around them.
They
also like to repeat activities. Children have great physical and psychological
needs. So they begin developing feelings about themselves, other people and the
world.
The Second
Plane of Development: 6 – 12
This
is the time of childhood. Children start to develop more through intelligence,
reasoning and imagination. They move towards social co-operation and begin
working with others on shared projects.
Children
also want to learn more about other cultures. So it is a wonderful time for
helping them to learn the arts, geography, history, languages and sciences.
Children
move towards developing a sense of morality, so at this point they need good
role models. They also ask the question: “Why?”
Children
want to learn about the Universe. So at this stage the Montessori educators start
sharing the ‘Great Lessons’. These are epic stories about creation and life.
The themes covered are listed below.
Though
the titles of the stories may different slightly in some Montessori schools,
the educational topics covered remain the same.
The
Great Lessons provide a framework – a unifying compass – that students can
return to when new topics are introduced. They are then able to relate the
learning to the eternal themes in life.
The Third
Plane of Development: 12 – 18
The
adolescent needs lots of food, sleep and thinking time as they grow both
physically and psychologically.
During
the early years – 12 to 15 – they start seeing themselves as individuals,
rather than as part of their family. They also look for ways to improve the
world. Educators give students the chance to build on this theme and make a
positive difference.
Those
aged 15 to 18 can tackle ambitious projects. Employing the skills they have
already learned, they can stretch to develop other talents. Drawn to ideals,
people of this age can sometimes blame others – parents, teachers, authorities
– for imperfections in the world.
Educators
recognise there may be some truth in this view, but encourage students to
develop their own ways to build better world. Each young person asks questions
such as:
“Who
am I? Where do I fit in? How can I help to build a better world?”
The Fourth
Plane of Development: 18 – 24
Montessori
saw the fourth plane as moving to adulthood. The young person can pursue the
‘work’ they find fascinating and also make a positive contribution to the
world.
It
is a time for gathering more experience and then finding and following one’s
vocation. The questions asked include:
“What
do I want to do with my life? How can I gain economic independence? How can I
do fulfilling work?”
Young
people who have grown up to be self-starters – to take responsibility and do
satisfying work – are more likely to answer these questions successfully.
* Every young person can be enabled to learn by providing the
right environment and encouragement at each stage of development.
Maria
believed that early in life every educational subject had its foundation in the
senses. It was then easier to move from the ‘actual’ to the ‘abstract’, the
concrete to the concepts.
The
Montessori environment is therefore full of rich experiences which are geared
to the young student’s plane of development. Starting from the first classroom,
for example, the materials cover the following five areas.
* Sensorial.
This
covers learning through the senses – seeing, hearing, touching, smelling,
tasting and moving.
* Practical life – learning about practical things in life.
This
covers learning about the practical things in life – such as caring for the
self, environment and others.
* Language.
This
covers all aspects of language – such as words, phonetics, writing, grammar and
composition.
* Mathematics.
This
covers counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying, mental arithmetic and the
practical applications of maths.
* Cultural Enrichment.
This
covers geography, history, science, music, the arts and many aspects of
cultural life.
Montessori
educators create the right ‘prepared environment’ at each stage. The learners
will then automatically move towards the activities they find most fascinating.
The
educator’s role is to encourage them to pursue these interests and develop
specific skills. How to make this happen?
The
following video link provides an insight into Montessori approaches employed by
some schools in Canada. It also contains footage of schools that claim to be
Montessorian but actually do not follow the key principles – such as always
having attractive materials accessible to children. It is well worth a look.
* Every young person can be enabled to experience a sense of
fulfilment.
Montessori
students appear to have more ‘flow experiences’ than those in other types of
schools. What does this mean? Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi is the author of Flow:
The psychology of optimal experience. He found that people enjoy a sense of
flow when they experience the following conditions.
After
working with Montessori educators for many years, Mihaly found that conditions
in their classrooms often produced a sense of flow.
This
experience is similar to the Montessori concept know as ‘normalisation’. This
is not trying to standardise the child. It refers to enabling them to
experience what Maria believed to be the normal state of a happy childhood. It
encourages a child to be themselves, do satisfying work and reach their inner
goal. They are able to flow, focus, finish and, as a by-product, gain a sense
of fulfilment.
‘Normalisation’
So
what is ‘normalisation’? The Montessori Centenary web site gives the following
overview.
“Montessori
education aids the development of the child’s will. Through constant decision
making (choices) the child’s ability to listen to his interests and impulses is
developed.
"But
the environment also contains within it limits, both natural and social, that
give the child constant practice in the inhibition of those impulses.”
“For
example, in the prepared environment there is only one of each set of materials
– one easel for painting, for example. If a child has an impulse to paint and
another child is already painting, there is a natural limit to that impulse.
"Similarly,
an activity, freely chosen, is only complete when it has been returned to its
place on the shelf, ready for the next person to use; the only limit to
individual freedom being the needs of the group as a whole.”
“Montessori
education has a special term for the process whereby characteristics including
initiative, self-discipline, concentration, independence, a love of purposeful
activity, and compassion become manifest in the child – ‘normalisation’. This
does not refer to a standardisation or a process of being forced to conform,
but describes a unique process in child development.”
“Maria
Montessori used this term to indicate her belief that these characteristics are
the normal characteristics of childhood.
"She
believed that the characteristics that we normally associate with childhood –
such as capriciousness, selfishness, laziness and the inability to concentrate
– appear only when a child’s natural development is being thwarted.”
“When
children are allowed freedom in an environment suited to their needs, they
blossom. After a period of intense concentration, working with materials that
fully engage their interest, children appear to be refreshed and contented.
"Through
continued concentrated activity of their own choice, children grow in inner
discipline and peace. This ‘normalisation’ is the single most important result
of Montessori education.”
Students
are encouraged to follow their own rhythm and become self-managing. They then
aim to develop mastery in their chosen field. Let’s move onto the impact of
Montessori education.
3) Practice.
So
what have been the effects of Maria’s work? During the first part of the 20th Century it appeared that
her approach would revolutionise education across the globe. When she arrived
in America in 1913, The Brooklyn Daily Eagle described her as:
“…
a woman who revolutionized the educational system of the world …”
Her
books, such as The Montessori Method, because instant best-sellers. During her
lifetime she produced many other books, such as The Absorbent Mind and The
Secret of Childhood. These expanded on the principles she developed in the
schools.
Within
twenty years of her greatest triumphs, however, Maria’s views began to fall out
of favour: but during the past half century there has been a growing
appreciation of her work.
Today
Montessori is the single largest approach to education in the world. It has
over 22,000 schools in more than 110 countries. Some of Maria’s pioneering
ideas have been embraced in mainstream education, such as helping students to
learn using their multiple intelligences.
There
are, of course, many aspects of education that run counter to Montessori
education. These include continually grading students, forcing them to compete
and constantly interrupting their flow of concentration.
Contribution
to the strengths approach
Maria’s
work embodied many elements of the strengths approach. For example:
* She created a pioneering approach that helped literally
millions of students to build on their strengths.
They
could pursue their interests, take responsibility for their learning and work
until they reached their goal. They could flow, focus, finish and, as a
by-product, find fulfilment.
* She created attractive environments that encouraged students
to use many senses when developing their skills.
This
enabled them to pursue their preferred learning styles which improved their
chances of success. This is a key part of the strengths approach.
* She encouraged each student to clarify their own philosophy
and contribution to the world.
Maria
invited them to begin thinking this way by providing a guiding compass – The
Great Lessons – that gave an overall framework. They could refer back to this
compass to see how each new educational theme fitted into the big picture.
Each
student was later encouraged to develop their own life philosophy. They could
then drawn strength from this inner compass and choose how to make their best
contribution to the world. This embodies a key principle in the strengths
approach.
Maria
was a giant amongst educators. She invited us to focus on the potential of
children and humanity. She wrote:
“We
do not want children who simply obey and are there without interest, but we
want to help them in their mental and emotional growth. Therefore, we should
not try to give small ideas, but great ones, so that they not only receive them
but ask for more.”
She
provided many ideas that we can use to serve children. As Maria said: “In
serving the child, one serves life,” and: “Within the child lies the fate of
the future.”
You
can find out more about Maria by visiting the Association Montessori
Internationale at:
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